Early Inhabitants and Prehistoric Discoveries

The earliest inhabitants of Southern India left behind traces in the form of cairns, barrows, kistvaens, and dolmens, found across many districts. They also produced rude stone weapons discovered on the rocky hills of the Deccan, and more refined utensils and implements from burial grounds like Adichanallur in Tinnevelly. While little is known about these ancient peoples, it’s believed they transitioned from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic and then to the Iron Age. They are presumed to be of Dravidian stock, distinguished by their shorter stature, dark skin, high nasal index, and use of Dravidian languages.

Madras (Chennai) itself holds significant prehistoric importance. Stone implements from the Paleolithic Age found in its vicinity suggest the presence of early human settlements. Since 1863, pioneers like R. Bruce Foote and others have accumulated substantial material, leading to a scientific study of finds and an analysis of Paleolithic centers. The Chingleput district is particularly rich in prehistoric remains, often called a “veritable field museum.” Collections from these efforts are housed and scientifically described in the prehistoric galleries of the Madras Museum.

It is surmised that a mighty river, known in popular tradition as Vriddha Kshiranadhi, once flowed through a large valley northwest of Chennai, where the Kortalaiyar now runs. This valley is believed to have been a thriving area for Paleolithic and Neolithic man. Cave-like rock shelters of primitive man have also been noted in the Alicoor hills near Gudem. While Neolithic sites are less abundant around Madras, sarcophagi tombs at Pallavaram, with their plain pottery, are thought to belong to this age. Sepulchral monuments have been found near Perumbair and Pallavaram, and a prehistoric cemetery site in Kilpauk contains both oblong and urn-type sarcophagi, with pottery similar to that found at Adichanallur, suggesting an Iron Age dating. Other significant finds have been unearthed at Ouduvanjeri, St. Thomas’ Mount, and Puttur. Ancient Tamil literature, dating back to the early Christian era, mentions urn burials as a living custom, suggesting the megalithic tombs of the region are much older.

Early Historical Evidence and Dynasties

The historical narrative begins to solidify with the Asoka edicts, discovered at Jaugada in Ganjam and a village in Mysore (near Bellary’s border). These suggest that around 250 BCE, at least the northern half of the Presidency was part of the Mauryan dominions.

The southern part of the Presidency was then divided among:

• The Pandyas of Madura, who controlled the extreme south.
• The Cholas, located north and east of the Pandyas.
• The Cheras (Keralas), who ruled the west coast.

Rise and Fall of Empires

Subsequent to Asoka’s era, the Pallavas of Conjeeveram (Kanchipuram) rose to prominence, extending their influence along the east coast as far north as Orissa.

In the north, the Mauryans were succeeded by the Andhras. These were Buddhists who constructed the magnificent marble stupa at Amaravati and other Buddhist structures, whose ruins are found in the Kistna and Guntur Districts. Their unique leaden coins are still unearthed in these areas.

Meanwhile, in the south and east, the Cholas of Tanjore rapidly expanded their territories. By 999 CE, they had conquered the entire coastal possessions of the Eastern Chalukyas. They had already subdued both the Pallavas and the Pandyas, annexing the former’s dominions and controlling the latter’s fate. These events mark the first major landmark in Southern Indian history. However, the Chola’s westward expansion was halted by the Hoysalas, and by the late twelfth century, their northern territory was seized by the Ganpatis of Warangal.

The Delhi Sultanate and the Rise of Vijayanagara

By the end of the thirteenth century, the dominant dynasties in Southern India were the Hoysalas, Cholas, and Pandyas. However, the early fourteenth century witnessed the sudden emergence of a new power: the Musalmans of Delhi.

In 1303 CE, the Khilji dynasty of Delhi launched its first expedition into the Deccan. Seven years later, marking the second landmark in Southern Indian history, the armies of Malik Kafur swept through the peninsula, defeating and suppressing the Yadavas, Hoysalas, Ganpatis, Cholas, and Pandyas. This led to a period of anarchy, with Musalman governors, old ruling families, and local chiefs vying for power.

Out of this chaos emerged the kingdom of Vijayanagara. From its capital at Hampi in the Bellary District, this kingdom successfully checked the southward expansion of Muhammadan power for the next two and a half centuries. The rise of this Hindu dynasty was remarkably swift, with Hindu chieftains accepting its sovereignty, often preferring it over Musalman despotism. Within a century and a half of its foundation, Vijayanagar governed the entire peninsula from the Kistna to Cape Comorin. The empire reached its zenith under Krishna Deva (1509-1530), who was contemporary with King Henry VIII of England.

European Arrival and Influence

In the mid-eighteenth century, the prominent native powers in the South were the Musalmans under the Nizam, Mysore under Haidar Ali, and the Marathas. However, various European powers had already begun to establish their presence.

The Portuguese

The Portuguese were the first European nation to settle in Southern India. By the early sixteenth century, they had occupied Calicut and Goa on the west coast. Vasco da Gama had visited the region as early as 1498. They prospered for a century but eventually declined due to weak support from home after Portugal’s union with Spain, ultimately succumbing to the Dutch.

The Dutch

From the early seventeenth century, the Dutch, already powerful in the Eastern Archipelago, established settlements at Pulicat, Sadras, and other locations along both the east and west coasts. They quickly ousted the Portuguese. However, their focus was primarily commercial rather than imperial, and the remoteness of their headquarters in Batavia hindered them, leading them to eventually drop out of the race. Pulicat, on the Coromandel Coast, was their first colonized spot, where they established a factory protected by Castle Geldria.

The French

The French were another European power drawn by the wealth of the East. After abandoning their original settlement in Madagascar in 1672 for Mauritius and Bourbon, they came to India. In 1674, François Martin founded and fortified Pondicherry, which became their headquarters in the peninsula. In 1742, Dupleix became governor, transforming Pondicherry into the only European settlement in the South capable of offering significant resistance to the English East India Company.

The English

The earliest English settlements within the Presidency were at Nizampatam and Masulipatam, where Captain Hippon founded factories in 1611. Five years later, settlements were established on the west coast at Cranganore and Calicut with the Zamorin’s permission. In 1619, a settlement was attempted at Pulicat but abandoned due to Dutch rivalry. After the Amboyna massacre in 1625, the Company’s agents from Bantam (Java) set up a small trading establishment at Armagon in the present Nellore District.

Foundation and Growth of Madras

In 1639, due to annoyances from the Sultan of Golconda’s subordinates at Masulipatam and the desire for a factory closer to the weaving and dyeing centers, Francis Day, the chief official at Armagon, obtained a grant of land from a representative of the Vijayanagar dynasty at Chandragiri. This land is where Fort St. George now stands. A small fort was immediately erected, and two years later, it became the Company’s headquarters on the Coromandel coast. In 1653, Fort St. George was elevated to the status of a Presidency, independent of Bantam, and by 1658, factories in Bengal were placed under its authority.

In 1690, the Company purchased land from the Marathas for Fort St. David, near Cuddalore. By the end of the century, English factories also existed within the present limits of the Madras Presidency at Porta Novo, Madapollam, Vizagapatam, Anjengo, Tellicherry, and Calicut.

Cultural and Religious Centers of Madras and its Vicinity

Moving into historical times, several suburbs of Madras and nearby villages were once significant cultural and religious centers.

Triplicane

The village of Triplicane, now part of the city, boasts an ancient temple dating to the mid-eighth century. It has been lauded by two Vaishnava Alwars, and additions were made by the powerful Pallava king Nandivarman Pallavamalla (8th century), a contemporary of Tirumangai Alwar. His son, Dantivarman, is linked to the earliest stone records in this important temple, one of the 108 traditionally sacred Vishnu shrines in Tamil Nadu.

Mylapore and San Thomé

Mylapore was closely associated with the Portuguese town of San Thomé in the 16th and 17th centuries. Its antiquity predates and immediately follows the Christian era, and its importance was noted by classical Graeco-Roman geographers. Its flourishing Sri Kapaliswara temple is very ancient, and the area was a center for both Jaina and Saiva religious activity. An early Jaina temple dedicated to Tirthankara Neminatha is said to have existed but was swallowed by the sea. The famous Tamil Saint Tiruvalluvar, author of the ‘Sacred Kural’, is also said to have lived in Mylapore. Recently, vestiges of a Jaina image were found near San Thomé. The Sri Kapaliswara shrine was originally by the sea but was moved inland due to encroachment. It was sacred to the Vira Saivas, and the famous Saiva Samayacharya, Tirugnanasambanda (7th century CE), visited it, performing a miracle by restoring a dead girl to life. Mylapore served as a port for the Pallava kingdom of Kanchi, and one Pallava monarch, Nandivarman III, was known as “Mallaivendan” (king of Mallai/Mamallapuram, the kingdom’s principal seaport) and “Mayilaikkavalan” (protector of Mylapore).

San Thomé itself is noted as a center of early Christianity, believed to have been established on the coast before the third century CE, if not by Saint Thomas himself. Old San Thomé and Mylapore are identifiable with the port of Malliarpha, described by the 2nd-century CE Graeco-Roman geographer Ptolemy as an important place on India’s east coast. Christian tradition associates San Thomé with Saint Thomas the Apostle, who is believed to have spent time there after founding the primitive Christian Church near Cranganore on the west coast, and to have suffered martyrdom near the present Saint Thomas’ Mount. Arab travelers of the 9th and 10th centuries knew San Thomé as “Betumah,” meaning “house/church/town of Thomas.” Later, Nestorian Christians from Persia founded a church and built a tomb over St. Thomas’ burial site and a monastery on St. Thomas’ Mount. In the early 16th century, this Christian town was found in ruins by Duarte Barbosa. The Portuguese settled there in 1522, and it grew into a prosperous town. They built the Luz Church in honor of Our Lady of Light.

St. Thomas’ Mount and the Little Mount were sacred to Christian communities. The Nestorian monastery on St. Thomas’ Mount was renovated by the Portuguese, who built a church there dedicated to Our Lady of Expectation. The Little Mount, also associated with the Apostle’s martyrdom, gained religious prominence in the 16th century. San Thomé flourished as a trading settlement after 1550.

Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram)

Mamallapuram and the nearby Tirukkalukkunram (Pakshithirtham) were major cultural and religious centers during the Pallava age. Pakshithirtham is known for its Vedagiriswara shrine and a prominent hill with four summit-mounts, sacred to the four Vedas. The hill temple, where sacred kites are fed daily, dates back to Pallava times. The temple at the foot of the hill, the “Alvar Koil,” is dedicated to the three cardinal Saiva Saints (Appar, Sundarar, and Sambandar) of the 7th century.

Mamallapuram, also known as Mahabalipuram, Mavalivaram, and the Seven Pagodas, was named after the Pallava king Mahamalla Narasimhavarman (7th century CE), who likely built or enlarged it. It was the birthplace of Bhuttattalwar, an early Vaishnava saint, and its flourishing Vaishnava shrine was praised by Tirumangai Alwar. The monuments are categorized into:

1. Monolithic rock-cut shrines (rathas): Popularly named after the Pandava Brothers and Draupadi, these were originally intended as Siva shrines and are the earliest examples of monolithic structures carved from single boulders in South India.
2. Excavated caves: Adorned with pillars and sculptured panels, notably the Varaha Cave dedicated to Vishnu’s Boar incarnation, featuring sculptures of Pallava kings and queens. A large rock sculpture is believed to depict either Arjuna’s penance or the descent of the Ganges.
3. Structural buildings and temples: Only the Shore Temple with its double vimana remains. The Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang (7th century) may have visited, describing it as the port of Kanchi.

Conjeeveram (Kanchipuram)

Further inland, Conjeeveram is one of India’s seven sacred shrines with ancient origins. It was the capital of the powerful Pallava kings from around the 3rd century CE for several centuries. Known as the “City of Temples,” it houses 108 Saiva and 18 Vaishnava shrines. Traditionally divided into Little Conjeeveram (Vishnu Kanchi), Big Conjeeveram (Siva Kanchi), and Pillai Palayam (Jina Kanchi), now a weaving center. The Sri Varadarajaswami Pagoda in Vishnu Kanchi is famous for its association with Ramanuja, a key Vaishnavism teacher, and for gifts from the Vijayanagar Rayas. Its annual festival attracts thousands. The Sri Kamakshi temple and Ekambareswarar shrine are sacred to Saivas, with the former linked to a miracle by Sri Sankaracharya. The Kailasanathaswami shrine, one of South India’s oldest stone temples, and the Vaikuntaperumal temple are both Pallava era and represent the earliest style of stone-temple architecture. Nearby, Tirupparutthikunram is a relic of a Jaina center with a temple dedicated to Mahavira. Conjeeveram was a renowned center of higher learning (Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Jaina) and admired for its healthy and well-constructed layout.

Other Significant Locations

• Sriperumbudur: About 30 miles southwest of Madras, it houses an ancient Vishnu shrine and is famed as the birthplace of Saint Ramanuja.
• Thirunirmalai: West of Pallavaram, this hill shrine contains rare bronzes and has been sung about by early Alwars.
• Kunrattur: Near Thirunirmalai, it’s the birthplace of Sekkilar, author of ‘Lives of the Tamil Saiva Saints’ (Periyapuranam), who is said to have built a temple there around the early 12th century.
• Mangadu: West of Saidapet, it has a Pallava-age temple with inscriptions on its inner sanctum walls.
• Pallavaram (Pallavapuram): Adjacent to St. Thomas’ Mount, it’s known as a sanatorium and regimental station. Historically, the great Pallava king Mahendra Varman (early 7th century) had a cave shrine excavated on its hill, with his titles engraved on its facade. This is the most ancient historic antiquity of the Madras region and is now used as a mosque.
• Tirusulam: Close to old Pallavapuram, its Siva temple dates to Chola times (11th-century inscriptions).
• Tirumalishai: Near Poonamallee, sacred to the Vaishnava Alwar of that name.
• Tiruvanmiyur (south of Madras) and Tiruvottiyur (north): Associated with the Saiva Nayanmars’ revivalist days. The Tiruvanmiyur temple likely belongs to the Chola period, showing Chola architectural features and epigraphs, and is the parent source of the Sri Kandaswami Temple in the city. The Tiruvottiyur Siva shrine predates the 8th century and is linked to Sankaracharya, who ended human sacrifices there. It’s also connected to Saint Gnanasambanda and once had a college for Vedic studies. Saint Pattinathar attained salvation here. A Tamil mutt (monastery) was attached to this temple as early as the 9th century.

Modern Madras (Chennai) Layout

The historical and cultural importance of Madras’s surroundings continued even after the decline of Hindu dominion, becoming a key center for European commercial enterprise and the revived Christianity of the Portuguese colony of San Thomé.

The city of Madras itself exhibits a distinct layout. The Beach Road runs beneath the walls of the Fort into George Town. George Town is a rough parallelogram, with long north-south streets intersected by east-west streets. Its southern base on the east is Esplanade Road, flanked by the High Court Buildings, Law College, and Madras Telephone Company buildings on the south, and by Gothic structures of former Christian College buildings, YMCA, and Pachaiyappa’s Hall on the north. Esplanade Road, also known as China Bazar Road, extends westward to Elephant Gate, bustling with bazaars and being one of the city’s most congested thoroughfares, roughly dividing George Town’s northern and southern parts.

Among the major north-south arterial streets, First Line Beach extends from Parry’s Corner to the Customs House. It originally stood near the shore and is lined with prominent buildings like the National, Imperial, and Mercantile Banks, General Post and Telegraph Offices, and the Old High Court.

West of First Line Beach is Second Line Beach, which branches into two streets. To its west lie Thambu Chetty Street (named after an 18th-century merchant), Armenian Street (indicating a prosperous Armenian colony), and Broadway, a road reclaimed from wasteland by Stephen Popham about 150 years ago. Broadway still divides George Town, much like the canal that once separated Muthialpet and Peddanaickenpetta. China Bazar Road runs perpendicular to Broadway. Then comes Mint Street, named after the Mint once at its northern end, running to the southern end of George Town, abutting General Hospital Road. Mint Street is the city’s heart, bustling with Gujarati and Marwari merchants and moneylenders, leading the middle part of the street to be called Sowcarpet. Smaller parallel streets include Govindappa Naick Street, Godown Street (known for cloth dealers), Devaraja Mudali Street, and Nyniappa Naicken Street.

Temples and Religious Structures in Madras

In Muthialpettah (east of Broadway in George Town) are two old Hindu temples:

• Kachaleswarar Pagoda: Built around 1725 by prominent merchants of the Left-Hand group.
• Malleswaran Pagoda: An even more venerable temple at the northern end of Thumbu Chetty Street.

In Peddanaickenpettah (west of Broadway), stands the Old Town Temple, co-eval with the city’s foundation and dedicated to Chennakesava, the Patron-Deity of Madras. It was moved from its original site in the High Court park to its current location in the mid-18th century.

The Ekambareswarar Pagoda in Mint Street was built in the late 17th century by Alangatha Pillai, a chief merchant of the Company. The Kandaswami Temple, sacred to the Beri Chetty merchants, gained prominence in the 18th century. Additionally, the city has numerous other temples, two Jaina shrines built in Mint Street by Marwari colonists, and several mosques in areas with a Muslim population. Churches for Christian communities are also present throughout the city.

Early European Settlements and Their Growth

The early 16th century found the Christian town of San Thomé in ruins, as noted by the voyager Duarte Barbosa. However, the Portuguese established a settlement there in 1522, and it quickly developed into a flourishing, prosperous town. They soon after built the Luz Church in honor of Our Lady of Light, a mile to the west.

St. Thomas’ Mount was deeply significant to the various Christian communities (European and Indian) thriving in San Thomé. The Portuguese renovated its Nestorian monastery and built a church dedicated to Our Lady of Expectation. They also elevated the religious prominence of the Little Mount in the 16th century, which is traditionally linked to the Apostle’s martyrdom. San Thomé only truly blossomed as a prosperous trading settlement after 1550. Its main gate faced west towards Mylapore, which was protected by earthen walls and had its own Hindu ruler. The Portuguese community in San Thomé lived freely, led by their own nobleman chief. In 1639, when Francis Day was scouting for the Madras site, he was even suggested to build his factory in San Thomé itself.

Further south, Sadras, at the mouth of the Palar river, and Pulicat, on the shores of its namesake lake to the north, became centers of Dutch enterprise in the 17th century. Pulicat was the first place on the Coromandel Coast colonized by the Dutch. The Dutch East India Company established a factory there, protected by a fortress still known as Castle Geldria. In the 17th century, it was a thriving port for jewels and abundant cotton goods. The English, while seeking a suitable factory site in 1621, initially tried to settle nearby.

Covelong, with its deity Komalamma and the Sanskrit name Nitya Kalyanapura, is another old Dutch settlement 20 miles south of Madras, near Sadras. Its importance continued into the 18th century, even after Dutch power waned, because the Nawab of the Carnatic built a mosque there over the tomb of a famous saint and renamed it Saadat Bunder, or ‘the Auspicious Port.’

Historical Significance Beyond European Influence

Chingleput, literally meaning ‘lotus-town,’ is said to be as old as the Pallava era and has witnessed all the historical changes of Tondaimandalam. Even the prosaically named Red Hills, now supplying Madras with filtered water, was an important Pallava-era town. Known as Puzhalur, it was a military station and a headquarters for one of the governors of the 24 divisions (kottams) of Tondaimandalam (the region between Tirupati and the Southern Pennar). Modern Madras’s site fell within Puzhalur’s jurisdiction. Kovilmadavaram, another name for the locality, was known for a large Buddhist shrine and a Siva temple. The Pallavas are said to have developed the area; after their fall, the Siva shrine’s bronze doors were reportedly taken to Tanjore.

Madras is situated in a region with a rich Hindu past, dotted with great temples and places associated with saints and heroes. It can be seen as the focal point of a semi-circular area stretching from Chingleput to Sholinghur and Tirupati, each part having sacred significance. The British choice of this location was not inexplicable, given its favorable position for obtaining cotton cloth and its advantages as a factory port. Moreover, it was amidst several other European settlements along the coast, from Armagon in the north to Pondicherry in the south. It’s even claimed that before British possession, Madras was more than just a fishing village, possessing important social and cultural elements. Suburbs like San Thomé, Mylapore, Triplicane, and Tiruvottiyur continue to be vital centers of religious and social activity.

The Modern Landscape of Madras

Upon arriving by rail, travelers will see little of the city proper, with only the Buckingham Canal and mills visible from the Central Railway Station. In older times, before foreshore development, Madras offered a vista of noble buildings along the shore, with the Fort separated by a maidan. Today, the maidan is enhanced by the Law Courts buildings, though the view is now impacted by cranes and port installations. The large oil tanks near Royapuram Beach mark the city’s northern boundary, while the San Thomé Cathedral spire serves as the southern landmark. The Harbour, extending into the sea, was famously described by Sir Francis Spring as “a challenge planted in the face of nature.”

The Marina and George Town

From San Thomé to Fort St. George stretches the broad Marina, running along the seafront for over two miles. This is a popular evening spot for locals to enjoy the sea breeze. On the land side of this road stand stately buildings, including the recently constructed Administrative and Library Buildings and the Senate House of the University of Madras (designed by Chisholm). Other notable structures include the beautiful Chepauk Palace, the Italian Renaissance-style Presidency College, the historic Ice House (now a women’s hostel), the domed University Examination Hall, and the buildings of Queen Mary’s College for Women.

The Marina Road crosses the Cooum river via a bridge and becomes Beach Road, leading into George Town beneath the Fort walls. George Town is a rough parallelogram, characterized by long north-south streets intersected by east-west ones. Its eastern southern base is Esplanade Road, flanked by the High Court Buildings, Law College, and Madras Telephone Company buildings to the south, and former Christian College buildings, YMCA, and Pachaiyappa’s Hall to the north. Esplanade Road, also known as China Bazar Road, extends westward to Elephant Gate, making it a crowded and congested thoroughfare, effectively dividing the northern and southern parts of George Town.

Among the main north-south arterial streets, First Line Beach runs from Parry’s Corner to the Customs House. Originally close to the shore, it’s lined with prominent buildings like the National, Imperial, and Mercantile Banks, General Post and Telegraph Offices, and the Old High Court. Across the road are the Anchor Gate, turreted Port Trust Offices, and the Beach terminus station of the electrified South Indian Railway line.

West of First Line Beach is Second Line Beach, which splits into two streets. Further west are Thambu Chetty Street (named after an 18th-century merchant), Armenian Street (indicating a former Armenian colony), and Broadway, a road reclaimed from wasteland by Stephen Popham about 150 years ago. These are the main north-south parallels in the eastern half of George Town. Broadway still serves as the dividing line between George Town’s two parts, similar to how a canal once separated Muthialpet and Peddanaickenpetta. China Bazar Road runs at a right angle to Broadway.

Then comes Mint Street, named after the Mint once located at its northern end. It runs south through George Town, reaching General Hospital Road. Mint Street is the city’s bustling heart, home to a large community of Gujarati and Marwari merchants and moneylenders, leading the middle section to be named Sowcarpet. Smaller parallel streets include Govindappa Naick Street, Godown Street (where most cloth dealers reside), Devaraja Mudali Street, and Nyniappa Naicken Street, all busy with small traders and traffic.

Religious Structures in George Town

In Muthialpettah (George Town east of Broadway), there are two old Hindu temples:

• The Kachaleswarar Pagoda, built around 1725 by prominent merchants of the Left-Hand group.
• The more venerable Malleswaran Pagoda, at the northern end of Thambu Chetty Street.

In Peddanaickenpettah (George Town west of Broadway), stands the Old Town Temple, co-eval with the city’s foundation and dedicated to Chennakesava, the Patron-Deity of Madras. It was moved from its original High Court park site to its current location in the mid-18th century. The Ekambareswarar Pagoda in Mint Street was built in the late 17th century by Alangatha Pillai, a chief merchant of the Company. The Kandaswami Temple, sacred to the Beri Chetty merchants, gained prominence in the 18th century.

Beyond these, numerous other temples are scattered throughout the town. Two Jaina shrines built in Mint Street cater to the Marwari colonists, most of whom follow that faith. Several mosques have been erected in areas with concentrated Muslim populations. Christian churches are also distributed, with the oldest located in Portuguese Church Street in the northern part of the town.

George Town, the oldest and most vital component of the city, has grown significantly but faces overcrowding and poor drainage due to being cut off from expansion by the Esplanade and the M. & S. M. Railway line and the Buckingham (or Cochrane’s) Canal.

Western and Northwestern Suburbs

The main suburbs to the west and northwest of George Town include Perambur, Choolai, Purasawakam, and Vepery. The mill area is situated in the wedge between Perambur, Vepery, Basin Bridge, and the northwestern corner of George Town. This area was originally a low-lying swamp, but portions have been reclaimed and drained by the Buckingham and Carnatic Mills, established over 50 years ago by Binny and Company, an old Madras firm founded by John Binny, an 18th-century supercargo.

Vepery and Purasawakam were initially popular residential areas for Europeans and Anglo-Indians, and Vepery still houses many from these communities. The main roads through these suburbs are Choolai High Road (extending through Hunter’s Road to Kilpauk) and the road from People’s Park through Periamet to Vepery. Transverse north-south streets include Sydenham’s Road, Rundall’s Road, Ritherdon Road, and Raja Sir Annamalai Chettiar Road. Kilpauk remains a favorite European residential quarter, also attracting well-to-do Indian citizens to its garden-houses. South of Poonamallee High Road lies the Spur Tank, now largely converted into playgrounds.

Southern Suburbs

To the south of Poonamallee High Road are the suburbs of Chintadripet and Egmore, with the Spur Tank between Egmore and Chetput. Chintadripet offers little historical or architectural interest beyond its 18th-century origin as a weavers’ village.

The Egmore Railway Station, recently rebuilt in the Indo-Saracenic style (common in Madras, seen also in the Senate House and Imperial Bank buildings), stands on the former site of the Civil Orphan Asylums, facing south.

On Pantheon Road (named after an old garden-house), are the Government Hospital for Women and Children (one of India’s largest), the Madras Museum, and the Victoria Technical Institute. The latter is a fine Mughal-style building adapted to Madras, featuring pink sandstone, a gateway resembling Akbar’s palace at Fathpur Sikri, and a grand hall with marble flooring. Its foundation stone was laid by King-Emperor George V in 1905-06 during his visit as Prince of Wales.

From Egmore, Pantheon Road crosses the Cooum via Anderson Bridge to Nungambakam, a primary residential suburb for Europeans and a popular Indian village. The Old College on the Cooum’s bank, now housing the Director of Public Instruction’s offices, was named for its former role in training junior civilians for Fort St. George. From the eastern end of Anderson Bridge, Commander-in-Chief’s Road (named after the nearby former residence, now Victoria Buildings) leads to Mount Road, crossing the Cooum.

Between Pantheon Road and Commander-in-Chief’s Road are the suburbs of Pudupet and Komaleswaranpet. Komaleswaranpet is a neat residential area. The bridge over the Cooum connecting Komaleswaranpet to Mount Road is Harris Bridge, named after a 19th-century Governor.

Pudupet, southwest of Harris Road, is a congested area, but its outskirts host the Government Ophthalmic Hospital, founded in 1819 and renowned globally. A new, grand building for the city’s masonic lodges has recently risen on Commander-in-Chief’s Road by the Cooum.

The Fort Area and Notable Landmarks

Returning to the Fort area, the northern Esplanade is dominated by the massive block of red buildings collectively known as the High Court. The Fort area stretches for nearly a mile from the High Court park north to almost the Cooum’s mouth south. The Fort achieved its current form by the late 18th century. In the peaceful times that followed, outer battlements were demolished, and the moat (except for a small western stretch) was filled. Even the coastal batteries (Clive Battery at Royapuram, one opposite the Law Courts, and another near the Cooum’s mouth) have been neglected, with the middle one entirely removed to accommodate port expansion and the South Indian Railway line.

Above the old Sea Gate of the Fort, with its double entrance, is the new Legislative Council Chamber. Its fine black-stone pillars have an interesting history: a brass wall-tablet states they were incorporated into the structure at the request of Governor Sir Arthur Lawley (1906-1911) when the old Banqueting Hall on the site was demolished. The Fort’s flagstaff, said to be the highest in India, stands on the massive redan of the Sea Gate. Unfortunately, modern wrought-iron gates, incongruous with the fortifications, have superseded the Sea Gate, providing entrance to the Council Chamber.

North of the Council Chamber (which also houses ministerial and Governor’s offices) is the Officers’ Mess, long used as the City Exchange, and where the port’s first lighthouse was erected as early as 1795. Within the Fort, streets named after 17th-century English monarchs and others, lined with buildings and barracks, evoke the growth of English power in South India and the figures of Clive, Lawrence, Sir Eyre Coote, and Sir Thomas Munro.

The Secretariat building, facing westward and adjacent to the Council Chamber, is the historical successor to the earliest Factory House built by Cogan and Day at the city’s foundation. Its central portion dates back to the late 17th century. West of the Secretariat is an open space, part of which was the former Fort Square and parade ground. To the south is St. Mary’s Church, built by Governor Streynsham Master and consecrated in 1680. Its history and the grave-stones in its yard form an interesting chapter in the city’s past.

The Accountant-General’s Office, west of St. Mary’s Church, has a unique history. Originally the residence of an Armenian merchant, it was leased to Clive and others before being acquired by the Company after Armenians were evicted from the Fort, serving as both Admiralty House and an entertainment venue.

Buildings Along the Marina and Inner City

Beginning from the Napier Bridge on its north, the Marina is flanked by the University’s Library and Administrative Buildings and its Senate House, completed in 1879. The Senate House, in Indo-Saracenic style designed by Mr. Chisholm, has a great hall considered one of India’s finest. Next is Chepauk Palace, once home to the Nawabs of the Carnatic, now occupied by the Board of Revenue and the P.W.D. Secretariat. Beyond are the grounds of Presidency College, a handsome and imposing 16th-century Italian Renaissance-style structure, formerly topped by a central dome housing a marble statue of its first Principal, Mr. E. B. Powell, a pioneer of Western education in India. West of Presidency College, separated by the Buckingham Canal, is the Victoria Students’ Hostel, built with government aid to house students attending colleges in the city’s southern part. The buildings in Chepauk Park, including Presidency College, span from Wallajah Road to the head of Pycroft’s Road, the main thoroughfare through Triplicane.

Triplicane is a crowded suburb, famous for its ancient Sri Parthasarathi Temple. South of the Marina and Pycroft’s Road are the playing grounds of Presidency College and the pavilion, the provincial headquarters of the Boy Scouts Movement, located in what’s known as Lady Wenlock’s Park. Adjacent is the stately pillared and domed University Examination Hall. Then comes the unique Ice House, now a women’s student home, whose vaults originally stored natural ice. Main roads parallel to Pycroft’s Road start west from the Ice House and the northern and southern bounds of Queen Mary’s College compound. These are Ice House Road (southern limit of Triplicane), Lloyd’s Road (meeting Mount Road near the Cathedral), and Edward Elliot’s Road (continuing as Cathedral Road to Nungambakam).

South of Edward Elliot’s Road, facing the sea, are the Inspector-General of Police’s offices, beyond which the Marina ends. The continuing road is San Thomé High Road, an old street that ran north-south through the 17th-century San Thomé Port. The most important local attraction is the San Thomé Cathedral. West of San Thomé, and practically continuous despite some gardens, is Mylapore, centered around the ancient Sri Kapaliswarar temple.

Residential Areas and Notable Estates

Mylapore is a favored residential area for affluent Indians, including high-ranking officials and successful advocates. Its beautiful car streets, encircling the temple and the ornamental tank to its west, are lined with substantial houses. Luz Church Road, extending from Cutcherry Street to Luz Church and then to Mowbray’s Road, features fine bungalow residences, effectively serving as the “West End” of Hindu Madras.

San Thomé stretches southward across swamps and open spaces, interspersed with large garden houses, reaching the Adyar River, which is crossed by the Elphinstone Bridge. Some of these houses, like Brodie Castle, Somerford (now part of the Chettinad House grounds), and Leith Castle, possess intriguing historical connections worth exploring. On the southern bank of the Adyar lies the extensive compound of the Theosophical Society, extending to the sea and housing a commendable Oriental library and lecture hall.

The Island: A Historical and Recreational Hub

Returning to the Fort, one can exit through the Wallajah Gate (named after the adjacent Wallajah Bastion) and cross the Island via a fine road lined with a treble row of trees. This marks the initial segment of the famous Mount Road and divides the Island grounds into two halves. The Island is, in essence, the city’s most significant playground. Historically, it was literally transformed into an island by the cutting of a connecting canal between the Cooum and the North River. In earlier times, the Island served as the primary parade ground for troops stationed in the Fort, and in the 18th century, it housed a powder factory.

On the western side of the Island are the ordnance stores, His Excellency’s Body-Guard Lines, and several cemeteries. Among these, the military cemetery of St. Mary’s is particularly noteworthy, containing several well-known tombs. The eastern half of the Island is largely occupied by the Madras Gymkhana Club, boasting excellent golf links. Previously, it functioned as both a race course and a polo ground.

Mount Road and Government House

Crossing from the Island via the Willingdon Bridge, one arrives at a section of Mount Road that stands out for its development and beautification within the city. Government House is situated right at the entrance to this section of the road, nestled within a spacious park that extends to Chepauk on one side and Wallajah Road on the other. It’s a grand dwelling built in the style of 18th-century Madras residences. Its acquisition and subsequent expansions make for compelling reading. The renowned Banqueting Hall, used for official levies and receptions, was constructed in 1802.

The walls of the Banqueting Hall and Government House display a collection of excellent paintings. These include portraits of King George III and Queen Charlotte in their coronation robes, painted around 1761, and a depiction of Major Lawrence and Nawab Waliajah walking side by side on the Island of Srirangam, witnessing the surrender of French troops in 1752. The collection also features another painting of Nawab Waliajah and one of Lord Cornwallis, the Governor-General who personally led the war against Tipu Sultan in 1791-92. Cornwallis is shown standing at his tent’s entrance, with the treaty he concluded with Tipu visible inside. Upon his victorious return, the citizens of Madras honored him with an entertainment and resolved to erect a marble statue in the city, which is now located at the southern end of the Connemara Public Library Hall.

A portrait of Marquess Wellesley, the Governor-General who came to Madras to supervise the final war with Tipu in 1799, is also displayed in the Banqueting Hall. Another significant painting is that of Sir Eyre Coote, who aided Clive at the Battle of Plassey, later crushed French power at Wandiwash, captured Pondicherry, and in the crisis of the great war with Hyder, secured victory at Porto Novo, saving Madras. He died in 1783 at Fort St. George and was initially buried in the Fort Church. Also noteworthy are a three-quarter length portrait of Lord Clive and one of Sir Arthur Wellesley (later Duke of Wellington), who spent some time in Madras in 1798.

Mount Road: A Century of Development

The Banqueting Hall serves as a memorial to the English victory at Seringapatam. Lord Clive, then Governor, associated its construction with his father’s significant victory at Plassey. Its grand interior is still used for all state ceremonies related to Government House.

Mount Road, skirting Government House, once housed Oakes and Company, a firm with nearly a century of history, now absorbed by Spencer and Company. The renowned jewellers, P. Orr & Sons, founded in 1899, have premises that uniquely adorn Mount Road, designed by Mr. Chisholm. This building features a handsome clock-tower with a clock connected to the Madras Observatory, signalling the correct time hourly. Newer additions to Mount Road in this section include the offices of the Madras Mail and the towering structure for The Hindu newspaper, nearing completion.

At the intersection of Mount and Wallajah Roads stood the Vizianagaram Fountain, an old city landmark—a graceful domed pavilion built by a late Maharajah of Vizianagaram. Further down Mount Road, beyond Christ Church and the spacious Cosmopolitan Club, are the Bharat Buildings, an imposing and handsome monument occupying an excellent site. With three facades, the longest facing Mount Road, its main northern facade (at the corner of Mount Road and General Patter’s Road) is flanked by two elegant, nearly hundred-foot-high towers crowned by an ornamental pediment.

Opposite the Bharat Buildings are the Lawrence Asylum Press (now a branch of the Government Press) and the premises of Messrs. Higginbothams, a long-standing bookselling and publishing firm. Its founder, Mr. Higginbotham, started in 1844 after being the librarian of the Wesleyan Book Depository. The firm has published many valuable books, particularly on South India.

Further along the road, where General Neill’s statue once stood, new and impressive structures have regularly emerged, enhancing the area’s dignity. The site of Neill’s statue is now a spacious square where several roads converge. It’s surrounded by noble buildings, the finest being the expansive headquarters of Messrs. Spencer and Company. This building features a quaint style with a facade broken into three gables, topped by turrets that add to its overall effect. Other attractions in this locality include the extensive compound of the Government Muhammadan College (whose main building is an old garden-house), the nearby Connemara and Spencer’s Hotels, and the tree-lined entrance road to the Madras Club. Beyond Spencer’s premises, Mount Road transitions into a more residential area, punctuated by crowded tenements that somewhat detract from its uniformly stately appearance. At the junction of Mount and Cathedral roads stands St. George’s Cathedral, with its towering spire built in the second decade of the last century.

Gardens and Historic Landmarks along Mount Road

To the west of the Cathedral, across the road, lie the Gardens of the Agri-Horticultural Society, established in 1835. Covering 22 acres, they feature numerous flowerbeds, tanks vibrant with lotuses, glass-houses, lawns, and groves. The Society hosts an annual flower show in February, with its nursery garden located directly opposite, slightly to the east.

Further along was the famous Cenotaph of Cornwallis, once a popular evening spot for fashionable society, with the Long Tank behind a mud embankment to its right. A little further down to the left is the Military Grass Farm.

Crossing the toll-gate, which marks the city’s limit in this direction, one reaches the Lushington Gardens, now the residence of the Collector of Chingleput. Formerly a botanical garden, Dr. Anderson conducted experiments related to the cochineal industry here. The vast Choultry Plain, comprising stretches on both sides of Mount Road, is filled with garden-houses, many originating in the 18th century. Next are the offices of the Collector of Chingleput and the gleaming white buildings of the Teachers College on the left, with the crowded town of Saidapet to the right.

Marmalong Bridge and St. Thomas’ Mount

We then reach the famous Marmalong Bridge across the Adyar, marked at its four ends by yellow posts topped with melon-shaped ornaments. The bridge takes its name from the nearby village of Mambalam, now a very popular Indian residential quarter, partly included within the city’s municipal limits. The bridge was rebuilt in 1726 by the Armenian merchant Peter Uscan, who also left a fund for its maintenance. South of the bridge, a road leads to the Little Mount, renowned for its association with Apostle Thomas.

From the southern end of the Marmalong Bridge, the road turns sharply right, passing a terracotta pavilion with a statue of King-Emperor George V. It then goes past the Guindy railway station, adjacent to the St. Thomas’ Mount Cantonment station. St. Thomas’ Mount became a popular retreat for English settlers very early in Madras’s history. The excellent Race Course grounds of the Madras Race Club are near the Guindy railway station.

At the northern foot of St. Thomas’ Mount is a high gate with four simulated arches, topped by a cross dated 1547. Inside are several grave-stones with old Portuguese inscriptions. Steps flanked by low balustrades lead to the Mount’s summit, believed to have been constructed by Peter Uscan. From the top, a wide and attractive vista unfolds in all directions. The town below the Mount contains several old garden-houses and barracks, along with military facilities like the Artillery Mess (considered one of India’s finest) and the grey Garrison Church. The area is rich with reminders of British power’s growth; the French suffered a defeat here during their siege of Madras in 1758-59.

To the southeast of the Mount lies the supplementary cantonment of Pallavaram, near which are a Wireless Installation and the Madras Aerodrome. Pallavaram is known for its clean air and has served as a health resort. The Pallavaram hills have been extensively quarried for over half a century. The so-called Pitt’s Pillars in the Legislative Council Chamber are believed to be made of Pallavaram stone, as is the “blue metal” (broken stone) used for macadamizing Madras roads, quarried from these hills. This stone is known as Pallavaram gneiss or charnockite.

Cathedral Road and Adyar’s Riverside Estates

Returning to the middle of Mount Road, Cathedral Road meets Mowbray’s Road at the corner of Sullivan’s Gardens. This finely shaded avenue, until recently, was one of Madras’s most beautiful roads, canopied by trees for much of its length. It runs south, separating Teynampet from Mylapore and the Luz, and continues to the famous Mowbray’s Gardens, now used as the Adyar Club. This fine house sits in a noble, rhomboidal park bounded by the Adyar River to the south. A unique feature of the house is a small dome above the central hall with open sides above the roof, acting as a ventilator and giving the structure a distinctive look.

Along the banks of the Adyar are beautiful garden-houses, with Brodie Castle on the bank of Quibble Island being the most ancient and spacious. Similar wide-spaced garden-houses, like Leith Castle and Somerford (now part of the Chettinad House grounds), adorn the area.

Poonamallee Road and Inner City Landmarks

One can grasp the western parts of the city by traversing Poonamallee Road, which leads to Poonamallee, an abandoned convalescent station for British troops about 14 miles from the Port.

Starting from St. George’s Gate on the Fort’s west, Poonamallee Road begins as General Hospital Road, flanked to the south by the extensive compound of the Medical College and General Hospital. On its north side, after the Esplanade, is the southern end of Mint Street, flanked by the Memorial Hall Buildings. Erected from public subscriptions as thanks for the Presidency being spared the horrors of the Indian Mutiny, its facade bears a self-satisfied inscription. The Hall is used for Christian public meetings, and its main building is flanked by the offices of the Christian Literature Society and the British Foreign Bible Society.

Opposite the Hospital grounds’ main entrance is the Central Railway Station, terminus for all trains heading west, northwest, and north. It’s a handsome structure with small side towers and a central, imposing clock-tower. East of the station, from Wall-tax Road to Mint Street, lies the stately, stone-faced, turreted building with quaint cupolas, housing the offices of the Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway Company.

Passing along the road via the General Hospital Bridge over Cochrane’s Canal, one encounters a line of imposing buildings along the southern edge of the People’s Park. The first is Moore Market, named after Sir George Moore, a former popular Corporation President who significantly supported its construction. This market replaced a congested and unsanitary one in Broadway (now a park) and serves the middle and upper classes, known for its ventilation and cleanliness.

East of Moore Market is a supplementary structure for vendors of worn-out, second-hand, and sometimes stolen goods, who previously sold their wares in the “Guzili Bazar” near the Memorial Hall. Adjacent to Moore Market is the Victoria Public Hall, initiated by Sir A. T. Arundel (a former Municipal President) and funded by a former Maharajah of Vizianagaram. Its construction finished in 1887 for Queen Victoria’s Golden Jubilee. Designed by Mr. Chisholm, it’s managed by trustees and hosts various public and private events.

Next are the stately Ripon Buildings, opened in 1913 by Lord Hardinge, the then Viceroy. Built of brick and chunam with minimal stone, it features a graceful tower with a large clock that chimes the hours and quarters “Westminster-like.” This new building suits the dignity and lineage of the Madras Corporation, whose offices were previously confined to narrow premises in eastern George Town.

All these three buildings are set back from the road with ample open spaces. Behind them lies People’s Park, opened in 1860 by Governor Sir Charles Trevelyan. It’s the city’s largest open space, featuring ornamental palms, a plant nursery, a well-kept Zoo with a representative animal collection, and a small flower-garden called “My Ladye’s Garden,” where the Corporation holds an annual flower show. It also hosts the South Indian Athletic Association, founded about 40 years prior to promote sports among Indians and Europeans. The association has successfully fostered athletic habits and runs an annual Christmas Carnival/Fair, contributing to holiday enjoyment for residents and visitors.

On the other side of Poonamallee Road is a choultry built by Rajah Sir Ramaswami Mudaliar, a merchant prince, alongside another built by a Muslim philanthropist for Muslims. Behind these lies the South Indian Railway line, flanked by the grim walls of the Penitentiary. Poonamallee Road continues straight west from the Ripon Buildings (near old Madras’s Periamettah) to the city’s western boundary, near the Orphan Asylum. Along its course are the Gun Carriage Factory (now used for non-military purposes), the quaint Gothic School of Arts building, and the Scotch Kirk with its fine spire. It then passes through the residential suburbs of Egmore and Kilpauk, lined with spacious bungalows.

Northern Reaches and Historical Significance

The northern parts of the city, stretching from the Fort, hold fewer points of interest for visitors. First Line Beach extends to the noble Royapuram Railway Station, the former terminus and headquarters of the Madras Railway. The streets behind it are primarily used by commercial and banking firms. Behind these lies the crowded quarter known as Muthialpettah, whose southern streets abut the Esplanade and China Bazar Roads. The Y.M.C.A. building and former Christian College buildings, fronting the Esplanade on the Muthialpettah side, have been previously mentioned. The Y.M.C.A. building is particularly notable, a result of American generosity, built in the Jaipur-Jaina style with brick and mortar picked out of stone and entirely stone-faced.

In Armenian Street, near the Esplanade entrance, are two churches of historic interest. The more southerly is the Armenian Church, built around 1772 on the site of an old Armenian cemetery. The date 1712 on its facade likely refers to the original small chapel in the cemetery. Its belfry stands distinctly apart from the church. Close by is the Roman Catholic Cathedral, with the date 1642 over its gateway. Like the Armenian Church, this date doesn’t mark the current Cathedral’s construction but records the first establishment of the Capuchin Mission in Madras. The present Cathedral was built in 1772. It features a broad nave and an interesting sanctuary. Its painting of the Crucifixion and Mary Magdalene is considered one of India’s finest oil paintings. A chapel attached to the Cathedral is named after Moorat, a wealthy Armenian merchant of the early last century, who owned the Pantheon Gardens and other properties, leaving a charitable benefaction known as the Moorat Fund.

In North George Town and the suburb of Royapuram, there are several interesting and old churches, the most ancient being the Portuguese Church in the big Paracherry. Relics of the Black Town wall to the north are also noteworthy. The northern suburbs of Royapuram and Tondiarpettah were once favored residential areas for wealthier Indians but have lost much of their popularity. The main north-south roads of North Madras are extensions of Mint Street and Broadway. The former leads straight to Tiruvottiyur, just outside the city’s municipal limits. Tiruvottiyur is associated with the famous ascetic Pattinattu Pillaiyar, whose samadhi is still in the town. Saint Sundara, a noted Saiva Nayanar, is also linked to the temple, greatly encouraged by past Chola kings, with Theagaraja as its presiding deity. The northeast line of the M. & S. M. Railway runs almost parallel to Tiruvottiyur High Road, and ongoing railway extension works are expected to significantly increase the importance of these villages in a few years.

The northwestern area of the city, from the Basin Bridge Junction, is fundamentally important due to the mill area occupied by the Buckingham and Carnatic Mills and their associated facilities, extending to the Kilpauk Waterworks. The extensive workshops of the Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway near Perambur, and the adjacent railway colony, are effectively city outgrowths, despite being beyond the proper municipal limits.

A city remodeling scheme, aimed at improving roadway and tramway transport and quicker communication between the city and outlying suburbs, is currently occupying the attention of all concerned agencies, including Railway and Tramway Companies, the City Planning Trust, the Police Department, and the Corporation.

Madras: A City of Enduring British Presence

Madras is the oldest among the Presidencies, boasting three centuries of steady growth. Its age as a British outpost on the Coromandel Coast mirrors English enterprise itself in this part of India. While not the earliest British settlement in the country, it was their first territorial acquisition (excluding the minor fort at Armagon, a few years prior). For many years, it remained the English Company’s sole fortified possession.

The English’s first trading house or factory was built in 1612 at the great Mughal port of Surat on the Bombay Coast. On the east coast, their first factory was erected at Masulipatam, the rich emporium of the Golconda kingdom. At that time, Masulipatam was Golconda’s chief port and a major market for its famous diamonds and rubies, as well as abundant chintz and painted cloths.

The fortunes of the English factory at Masulipatam fluctuated rapidly. Rivalry from the Dutch, jealousy from the Portuguese, and oppression from the Muslim governor forced the English merchants to abandon their factory and seek refuge further south. In 1621, they attempted to share the Dutch settlement at Pulicat, but this joint venture proved inconvenient and was quickly abandoned. In 1626, the distressed English merchants obtained a grant for a small plot of land at Armagon, 35 miles north of Pulicat, where they subsequently built a small factory and fort. However, Armagon was a poor trading location, and its interior couldn’t supply the calico cloth quantities the Company needed for European consumption. The Armagon factory held brief importance for a few years as the only safe English refuge during a period of anarchy and intense European rivalry. The Carnatic’s condition (coastal districts from Guntur southward) was neither prosperous nor secure, torn by bitter internecine warfare.

Masulipatam, however, remained safe under the Sultan of Golconda’s protection, prompting the troubled English factors at Armagon to plan a return, especially with the offer of a “Golden Parwana” from the Sultan granting them privileges. But upon reaching Masulipatam, they found the country devastated by famine, with most weavers and washers dead and the region “almost ruinated” (Letters to the Company, 1632-33). The Sultan assured the English of safety, in return for their promise to import Persian horses. Thus, despite the depression and famine, the English factors temporarily drifted back to Masulipatam, effectively abandoning Armagon. This move, however, yielded no good results.

The Quest for a New Settlement: Madraspatam

In 1639, Thomas Clarke was the English Agent at Masulipatam, while Francis Day was chief of the subordinate settlement at Armagon. Masulipatam was unproductive, and Armagon was a hopeless location. The Dutch were openly hostile due to the Amboyna incident. English trade at their factories primarily involved purchasing cotton goods for export to Bantam in the Malay Archipelago, with some trade with Surat and the Persian Gulf Coast, and a small volume of port-to-port trade. The usual method for purchasing cotton cloth involved advancing money to local weavers through Indian middlemen, later known as dubashes (interpreters), who guaranteed timely supply of bleached and unbleached, painted, and printed cloth. Securing enough cloth for an export season took many months. The difficulty was a lack of consistent funds for these investments, as factors received meager salaries and largely engaged in private trading for personal profit.

The Dutch at Pulicat were in a much stronger position. The surrounding area was known for cotton weaving, and their fort, Geldria, was strong enough to defy and negotiate on equal terms with the local Hindu governor, also protecting weavers who settled under its walls. Masulipatam was clearly in decline. The English frequently and bitterly quarreled with local officials, and redress from the Golconda court was difficult to obtain. The English ultimately decided a settlement further south would be greatly convenient, despite Armagon’s unencouraging prospects (an unfriendly Nayak and unresourceful English factors). Furthermore, the small fort at Armagon became increasingly dilapidated with each monsoon, and the Agents at Masulipatam and Bantam prohibited any expenditure on repairs or further fortification. Indeed, the Directors of the English Company explicitly ordered Armagon’s dismantling and abandonment in 1638-39. The English factors there bravely risked their masters’ displeasure by delaying the dismantling, hoping to find a better settlement first.

Initially, the English factors focused on the area near Pondicherry. Francis Day, the Chief of Armagon, journeyed there to negotiate with authorities for a suitable site. Dutch factors at Pulicat reported rumors that the English wanted to build a fort at either Pondicherry or Kunimedu, thirteen miles north. Day’s initial plan failed. However, it quickly became known that the English wished to move south of Armagon, and soon, the Nayak of the coast country, Damarla Venkatappa, offered Day a settlement in his dominion.

Damarla Venkatappa (or Venkatadri) and his younger brother, Aiyappa, belonged to the Velugoti family of Kalahasti. The elder Damarla brother, Venkatappa, was the chief of Wandiwash and held significant influence over his master, the Raja of Chandragiri (a descendant of the Vijayanagara emperors), controlling his entire administration. Dutch records indicate Venkatadri commanded an army of 12,000 to 15,000 soldiers, resided mostly in Wandiwash but spent considerable time with the Raya at his capital. His brother, Aiyappa Nayak, resided at Poonamallee (west of Madras) and managed his brother’s government of the coast country. It was from these two Damarla brothers that the English obtained the grant for the site of Fort St. George, the nucleus of present-day Madras. English records naturally referred to the elder Damarla as governing the coast between Pulicat and San Thomé (south of Fort St. George) and as the “Lord General of Carnatica” and “Grand Vizier to the King.”

Negotiations for the settlement were conducted in Damarla Venkatappa’s name, though Aiyappa of Poonamallee may have initiated the first overtures. These proposals likely began in the spring or early summer of 1639. They were attractive enough to prompt Francis Day to seek consent from the Agent at Masulipatam to visit the proposed settlement area, assess cloth trade possibilities, and then formally negotiate with the Nayak. Upon returning from this journey, Day reported reaching the vicinity of Madras on July 27, 1639. He was well-received by the Nayak, merchants, painters, and weavers. He found that cloths woven locally were 20, 30, and sometimes even 40 percent cheaper than those at Armagon. The availability of cheap cloth was the Company’s primary concern. Armagon, in contrast, was considered miserably poor, and its Nayak “continuously forcing.” Goods from the south could be procured at least 15 percent cheaper.

The grant obtained by Day from the Nayak (dated July 22, 1639, in the document) permitted the building of a fort and castle at Madraspatam. Three contemporary copies exist in the India Office Records. It stated that the Nayak would initially cover the fort’s building costs, to be repaid when the English took possession. It also granted full administrative power over Madraspatam for two years after fortification, and half the customs and port revenues. English goods, for import or export, were to be duty-free for two years and perpetually thereafter, with the perpetual privilege of minting coins without dues. The Nayak also guaranteed merchant, painter, and weaver payments for cloth contracts, making good “all such sums of money as shall remain on their accounts or else deliver to them their persons if they shall, be found in any part of my territories.” No duty was payable on provisions for the fort or ships. If an English ship or a trading vessel shipwrecked on the Nayak’s coast, he would restore any salvage. Sir William Foster believes the July 22, 1639, date in one version (appended to Agent Andrew Cogan’s defense) was likely a mistake for August 22, 1639.

According to an October 25, 1639, letter from the Masulipatam Factory to the Company, Day had set out for Armagon on his way to Madras. He was asked to report on painted cloth availability in San Thomé and near Madras, and whether Madraspatam offered facilities for obtaining painted cloth, long cloth, timrrees, and percallas 20 percent cheaper than elsewhere. “Madraspatam is seen here in this letter to lie upon a high plot of ground adjoining the sea where a ship of any Burthen might ride at a distance of musket shot, close by a river which was capable of a vessel of 50 tons.” This site is the land spit north of the Cooum river’s mouth and west of the North River where it joins the Cooum.

These “supposed advantages of Madras” were evidently exaggerated. The shallow, surf-beaten coast prevented ships from anchoring close by, and the Cooum’s mouth wasn’t deep enough even for the small ships of that era. Nevertheless, Day convinced the Masulipatam Council of these advantages and the Nayak’s profitable concessions. The Nayak, in turn, hoped to obtain good Persian horses through the English, send a servant to the Bay of Bengal on an English ship for hawks, apes, parrots, and other curiosities, and strengthen his dominion with this friendly port.

The Masulipatam Council’s letter also states that the Portuguese Captain (Governor) of San Thomé, acting on instructions from the Viceroy of Goa, offered the English any part of his town for settlement, but the English gave no promise or denial. Likewise, another letter was sent to the President at Bantam, seeking early sanction for the undertaking. A few days later, the Surat Presidency informed them that the Bay of Bengal factories were now under Surat’s control, not Bantam’s. Cogan and the Masulipatam Council then began writing to the Surat Council for permission to proceed. The Surat Council’s reply, dated January 8, 1640, was intentionally ambiguous. It stated that if the Madraspatam fortification project was already too advanced for their direction to improve it, they hoped factors had taken precautions and weighed objections, as “some such place is very necessary for provision of paintings (chintzs).” This letter, received in Masulipatam on February 6, 1640, was interpreted as permission to take possession of Madras, even though the Surat Council also hinted at acquiring Tranquebar from the Danes “if their poverty should induce them to part with it.”

A fortnight after receiving the Surat letter, Day, who had already dismantled the Armagon factory, arrived at Madraspatam on February 20, 1640, along with Cogan in the ship Eagle. The construction of the fort began immediately, likely from March 1, 1640.

The Nayak then informed Day that he had never intended or promised to build the fort walls with anything other than palmyra trees and earth, blaming the interpreter if the English had misunderstood him. Day and Cogan were keen for the construction to proceed rapidly. Day even initially offered to personally pay the interest on any borrowed funds for the building, though he later reconsidered and sought to be relieved of this commitment. It’s speculated that the fort was named Fort St. George because its inner part might have been completed by St. George’s Day, April 23, 1640. The Nayak, however, provided no further assistance, claiming he had only promised the ground and minor help, and lacked money or materials for the fort’s construction. The English had to accept bearing the entire cost, as they could neither abandon the site nor halt construction at that stage.

Despite opposition from the Portuguese of San Thomé, they were optimistic about the future. The new settlement had prospered so well that 300 to 400 families of weavers, painters, and other workmen had moved to the town built north of the fort. The Directors were assured that a significant quantity of long cloth, painted cloth, and other fabrics, in demand at Bantam and other places in the Malay Archipelago, could be easily procured at Madras. The Surat letter, however, concluded cautiously: “And thus we have cursorily expressed the story of your Forts foundation and erection. If you are pleased to read the several circumstances more particularly described, you will not find that we positively ordered the building of that Fort, as the Agent etc. in their letter to you (herewith sent) falsely intimate.’’

Early Growth and Development

The new settlement of weavers and other artisans that sprang up was named Chennappapatnam at the Nayak’s request, in honor of his father, Chennappa Nayak. All settlers were granted a 30-year tax exemption. When the fort’s construction began, the village contained a few French Padres (two Capuchin Friars) and about half a dozen fishermen’s houses. A proclamation announced that no customs or duties would be levied on food, drink, or clothing for inhabitants for 30 years. By November 1640, around 400 families had settled. In early 1641, Dutch factors from Pulicat reported that the English settlement, which had previously consisted of 15 to 20 fishermen’s huts, now boasted 70 or 80 houses, including many people driven from San Thomé and neighboring towns by poor trade or the hope of employment in Madras.

By the end of 1640, one bulwark of the fort was complete, with eight iron guns positioned on a base of large iron-stone blocks, facing the San Thomé (southern) side, from which an attack was anticipated. A second bulwark was almost finished within a few months, and considerable progress had been made on the connecting walls. However, the Directors objected to the cost and suggested Day provide a security of 3,000 or 4,000 pagodas. Unfortunately, complaints regarding some of his cloth trade transactions led the Surat Council to decide on sending him back to England. Consequently, Day embarked for England, arriving in July 1641. After an inquiry into the charges against him, he was sent back to India, reaching Madras in July 1642, with a welcome remark that he was “the first projectour of the fort of St. George.”

During Day’s absence in England, Cogan transferred the seat of the Agency from Masulipatam to Fort St. George. Thus, from September 24, 1641, Madras became the chief of the English factories on the east coast. Cogan’s arrival in Madras from Masulipatam on that date marked the beginning of Madras’s sustained importance.

The Original Grant and Fort Location

Damarla Venkatappa and his brother Aiyappa were instrumental in securing the grant of the Fort St. George site for the English. It’s crucial to understand the exact territory conveyed by the Nayak’s initial grant. The first offer to Day was a plot of ground for a fort. The subsequent documented grant, dated August 22, 1639, authorized them to erect a fort “in or about Madraspatam,” implying the granted territory was within the existing village limits of Madraspatam.

The fort itself was built on the spit of land enclosed between the Cooum River, where it flows into the sea, and another river (then known as the North or Elambore River, now Cochrane’s Canal). This latter river initially ran north to south close to the present Madras and Southern Mahratta Railway line and its Central Station, about a mile from the coast. It then bent eastward at the southwestern corner of the present General Hospital grounds, took an easterly course, and upon nearing the fort’s western glacis, turned south again until it met the Cooum River at its mouth.